Image of a Saracen king of West Africa,

believed to be Mansa Musa, Emperor of Mali.

From the Catalan Atlas of 1375

  

Topics on the Page

 

Background on Ancient African Empires

 
Ghana

 
Mali

• The City of Timbuktu

 

Songhai

• Great Mosque of Djenne

 

Other African empires

 

 

• CROSS-LINK: Kingdom of Axum

 

• CROSS-LINK: The Swahili Coast and Swahili Coastal Societies

 

• CROSS-LINK: Sub-Saharan African Civilizations: Ghana, Mali, Songhai

 

 

Focus Question:

Where were the empires of Ghana, Mali and Songhai, when did they exist, and what were the connections between them?

 

PAGE SUMMARY (Ana Schantz, February 2022) The page offers primary and secondary sources about the African empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai. On this page, learners (teachers and students) can learn about the history of these three African empires through interactive maps, videos, articles, manuscripts, timelines, and maps. Besides that, teachers can also find learning plans that would help them design their lessons.

 

  

For more on early African history, see AP World History Key Concept 3.2

 

Background on African Empires

 

 

For a timeline of the west African empires, click here

 

 

• See here for a brief introduction to each empire, provided by America's Black Holocaust Museum.

Read "Ways of Recording African History," which helps explain how our understanding of the past differs from culture to culture, and provides some examples of the material record of various African cultures.

Beginning in the 8th Century, Islam spread through Africa primarily through contact with Arab/Muslim traders as part of the Trans-Sahara Trade.

 

• Ghana, Mali and Songhai were Empires that existed in the Western Sudan between the first millennium CE and the 16th Century CE.
• The western Sudan covered the area from the Sahara Desert to the Tropical rain forests of the Guinea coast.

 

• The three major empires all peaked at different times. Each was influenced by trade, contact with other cultures, religion, environmental factors, and invasions.

 

• Ghana was the first of the three early African empires which lasted roughly from 300-1200 CE.

 

• Mali came next and lasted from 1200-1500 CE.

 

• Songhai, the last of these three great empires, remained from 1375-1591 CE.

 

 Map Resources

 

Interactive Map of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai's empires, including trade routes, architectures, landmarks and biographies.

Mapping Africa from the Royal Geographic Society provides an audio slideshow that includes maps from the earliest depictions of Africa to the colonial scramble for land.

 

 Ancient Manuscripts from the Desert Libraries of Timbuktu from the Library of Congress.

 

• For more on how rebel forces are threatening ancient documents, see The Smuggled Hard Drives of Timbuktu, The Boston Globe, February 17, 2013.

 

 Read "The Forgotten History of African Women" to learn more about women's roles throughout the continent.

I. Ghana

There is still much we do not know about the ancient kingdom of Ghana. Most of what we do know comes from the writings of Arab travelers and historians who became aware of Ghana in the 8th Century CE. As a result, very little is known about the time before Arab contact.

The Empire of Ghana is the earliest known empire in the Western Sudan. It is believed that they had large armies, sophisticated systems of governance, and systems of taxation. Ghana was first populated of Soninke clans, who acted as intermediaries of the slat and gold traders in the region. The kingdom was ruled by a king who relied on tributary princes. This system of government had many similarities to the feudal system in Europe.

 

 One lasting account of the Kingdom of Ghana is written by Al-Bakri, a member of a prominent Spanish Arab family who lived during the 11th century.

The Empire of Ghana thrived on the wealth of gold. It also increased its ability to trade when it acquired camels, as this allowed them to cross the Sahara with more ease and trade a wide variety of commodities—something that the ancient people could not do.

The Trans-Saharan Gold Trade (7th to 14th Century)

 

Here is a lesson plan from the National Endowment for the Humanities about trade in ancient West Africa

Go here for a brief overview of the Kingdom of Ghana

 

Watch a video about Ghana's empire.

 

Dates and Time Frames

 

• 300 CE—archeological evidence suggests that the Empire of Ghana existed by this time. It could have started earlier, however.

 

• 8th Century CE.--Arab explorers discovered the Empire of Ghana in the 8th century CE. No one knows exactly when the empire started, but it is thought that by the time the Arabs arrived, the empire could already have been thriving for several centuries. The Tarikh as-Sudan, a history book that was written in the 17th century, claims that by the time the Arabs came Ghana had already been ruled by 22 different kings.

 

• Some historians think that they suffered from a military take over by the Almoravid Muslims of Morocco who wanted to spread Islam—others think that while these people did encroach upon the people of Ghana, it was not a violent jihad (holy war).

 

• The King of Ghana lost his trade monopoly as gold trade routes began to change and other kingdoms began to mine gold in places not readily accessible to Ghana

 

• Drought affected Ghana by affecting the land and the people were no longer as successful with agriculture or raising cattle.

 

Point of Interest

 

The modern country of Ghana is not located in the same place as the Empire of Ghana. Modern Ghana is about 400 miles southeast of where the Empire was and is not related ethnically either. The modern country was named after liberation from colonization—choosing a name of one of the great African empires was symbolic of African independence and success.

II. Mali

 

The Empire of Malii came into power as the Empire of Ghana was declining, and formed into one of the huge states of premodern Africa - it was 2,000 km wide (approximately 1200 miles).

Equipped with a complex governmental structure headed by the king and managed by officials, sub-kings, and bureaucrats, Mali was also one of the first states south of the Sahara to see the new religion of Islam firmly take hold. The message of the Prophet was soon allied to the interest of the rulers of Mali, and a strong relationship between religion and the state quickly developed.

Like Ghana, the Empire of Mali controlled the gold trade, but it also controlled the salt trade. Cowrie shells were used as currency which made the empire’s economic system advanced.

Above: Cowrie shells 

In the 15th century, the Mali Empire began to suffer defeats from without and within. Tuareg nomads conquered Timbuktu, and soon after, Songhai living in Gao began a revolt against Mali.

• Read more about the Mali Empire, its rulers, and eventual decline here. 

 

 

The City of Timbuktu

 

The city of Timbuktu was a central spot on the trade routes and one of the most important places in medieval Africa.

 

• It is located where the Niger River flows northward into the southern edge of the Sahara Desert.

 

• It was a major trading hub and a center for scholars. 

 

• The modern-day city is one of the sites included in the World's Most Endangered Sites.

 

• Timbuktu's Badass Librarians Checking Out Books Under Al-Qaida's Nose, NPR (April 23, 2016)

 

• Watch a video about the Mali Empire's wealth and culture. 

 

• Watch a BBC video depicting UN peacekeeping efforts in modern day Timbuktu.  

 

 

 

 

 Dates and Time Frames

 

• Timbuktu founded by Tuareg herders.
• 1235 CE—Sundiata rose to power.
• 14th century CE—Mali reached its peak.
• 1324—Mansa Musa, one of Mali’s most famous Kings, made a pilgrimage to Mecca. He also left behind him amazing buildings. Under his rule, Timbuktu became a city known for learning. In 1327, Mansa Musa oversaw the construction of the Sankore Madrasah, Mali's university. Thousands of students from across the empire would come to Timbuktu in order to study.
• 15th century CE—Mali was weakened by raids from the outside. The Tuareg Berbers took over the economy of Timbuktu. At the same time, the Empire of Songhai was becoming more powerful.
• 1500—Songhai had overtaken what was left of Mali; scholarship and trade flourish under Songhai Empire.
• 1591—Moroccans invade and deport scholars.
• 1612—French colonial power replaces local rulers.
• 1960—Mali gains independence from France.

 

Here is an excerpt from Larry Brook's "Daily Life in Ancient and Modern Timbuktu" that provides insight into their society as well as women's role in their society

 

 

III. Songhai

 

Map of Songhay Empire

 

 

The people who made up the Songhai Empire in the 15th century CE actually started as fishermen and canoeists in the 9th century and formed a kingdom in the 11th century.

They lived in an area claimed by the Mali Empire during Mali’s reign, but Mali never managed to have control over them.

As Mali fell, Songhai rose under the control of Sonni Ali The Great. Songhay became what is now known as the greatest African empire ever.

 

 

The Songhai military was the largest organized military force in Western Africa (and extremely well-equipped).

• This force of nature enabled the substantive conquering/looting of the neighboring regions.

 

• This impressive military was instrumental in allowing Songhai to become the political and economic giant that it was, as the loot from conquered areas brought riches back to the empire, and allowed for substantive political control in the region. 

 Joannes Leo Africanus, an Arab traveler visited Timbuktu in the Kingdom of Songhay early in the 1500s.

• He left this description of that city.

Learn more about the Songhai Empire's introduction into the Islamic world and its eventual decline here.

For background, see The Empires of Western Sudan from the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

 

• Click here for Interactive Timeline of Western Sudan, from 500 - 1600 A.D.

The Great Mosque of Djenne is an Islamic religious site that was constructed under the Songhai Empire. 

 

• Read here about how it fits into the larger history of Islam in the region.

 

• Read here about how the mosque has faced legitimacy claims due to its ruin and reconstruction. 

 

 

Dates and Time Frames

 

• 15th century—Songhai Empire came into power under the leadership of Sonni Ali.

 

• By 1469, the Songhai Empire had established control over the key trade city of Timbuktu.

 

• 1471-1473—A military campaign that ultimately led to control over Djenne, the other major trade city in the region. 

 

• 1493—Sonni Ali died. Mohammed Toure took power. He led the empire with a more dedicated commitment to Islam than his predecessor. He also standardized systems of weights, measures, and currency. Consistency in these fields helped him consolidate power. Songhai came to its height under Toure’s leadership.

 

• Here is a UNESCO video about Askia's tomb and the empire of Songahi

 

• Late 16th Century—Songhai’s decline was aided by civil war. Because it was so big it was difficult to keep control over all the different people the Empire encompassed. Drought and disease also weakened the empire.

 Collapse: Why Do Civilizations Fail? Click here for background information on the Rise and fall of Mali and Songhai.

Read more about the decline of the Songhai Empire, and causes of the Moroccan invasion of 1591, here, from the University of Pennsylvania.

 

For a short video, see The Songhai Empire on YouTube.

 

 

IV. Other African Empires

 

Aksum or Axum

 

The Kingdom of Aksum (or Axum) was founded in the 1st century CE and went into decline in the 7th century CE because of the Islamic expansion. It was located on the northern edge of the Red Sea coast, just above the horn of Africa.

 

Its economy was based on trading between various African (Nubia), Arabian (Yemen), and Indian states.

 

  Around A.D. 330-40, Christianity was made the official state religion. 

 

• Click here or a brief introduction to the Kingdom of Aksum.

 

 Here is a lesson plan with video and activities about the Kingdom of Aksum.

 

Mancala is an ancient African board game. There is archaeological evidence of Mancala's board in the kingdom of Aksum around the 6th and 7th century CE.

 

• Click here to learn how to play it.

 

CROSS-LINK: Kingdom of Axum

 

 

Sources

Africanus, Leo (Date Unknown) The History and Description of Africa pp. 824-825. Retrieved February 7, 2012, from BU African Studies Center: Kingdom of Songhay Primary Source Documents Website: http://www.bu.edu/africa/outreach/resources/k_o_songhay/

Al-Bakri, The Book of Routes and Realms, cited in Levitzion and Hopkins, Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West African History, (Cambridge University Press, 1981) pp. 79-81. Excerpt Retrieved Feb 7, 2012, from BU African Studies Center: Kingdom of Ghana Primary Source Documents Website: http://www.bu.edu/africa/outreach/resources/k_o_ghana/

 

America's Black Holocaust Museum. Three Of The World's Most Influential Empires:Ghana, Mali And Songhai. Retrieved February 12, 2022, from America's Black Holocaust Museum web site: https://www.abhmuseum.org/three-of-the-worlds-most-influential-empires-wagadu-mali-and-songhai/#:~:text=While%20Mali%20quickly%20fell%20apart,time%20of%20the%20Mali%20Empire

The BBC, (Date Unknown). West African Kingdoms—Ghana. Retrieved February 22, 2007, from The Story of Africa Web site: http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/4chapter1.shtml

The BBC, (Date Unknown). West African Kingdoms—Mali. Retrieved February 22, 2007, from The Story of Africa Web site: http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/4chapter3.shtml

The BBC, (Date Unknown). West African Kingdoms. Retrieved February 22, 2007, from The Story of Africa Web site: http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/4chapter4.shtml

 

Cartwright, Mark (2019) Songhai Empire. Retrieved February 14, 2021, from Ancient History Encyclopedia site: https://www.ancient.eu/Songhai_Empire/.

 

The Ghana Empire. February 12, 2022. [video] Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3x-IwaVhnmo.

 

The Gold Road. Retrieved February 12, 2022, from The Gold Road web site: http://thegoldroad.org/map.aspx.

 

Hooker, Richard (1996). Civilizations in Africa--Songhay. Retrieved February 22, 2007, from World Civilizations Web site: http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/CIVAFRCA/SONGHAY.HTM

Metropolitan Museum of Art, (2000). Empires of the Western Sudan. Retrieved February 22, 2007, from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Web site: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/wsem/hd_wsem.htm

 

The Spruce Crafts. Learn How to Play Mancala to Strengthen Strategic Thinking Skills. Retrieved February 13, 2022. https://www.thesprucecrafts.com/how-to-play-mancala-409424.

(2000) Western Sudan, 500–1000 A.D; Western Sudan, 1000 - 1400 A.D; Western Sudan 1400 - 1600 A.D. Retrieved February 7th, 2012 from the Metropolitan Museum of Art Web site: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/?period=06&region=afu

MacDonald, K.C. (Date Unknown). The Road to Timbuktu. Retrieved February 22, 2007, from The Wonders of the African World Web site: http://www.pbs.org/wonders/Episodes/Epi5/5_wondr4.htm

 

McGill School of Computer Science. Mancala. Retrieved February 13, 2022. https://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~rwest/wikispeedia/wpcd/wp/m/Mancala.htm#:~:text=The%20first%20evidence%20of%20the,Ge'ez%20text%20%22Mysteries%20of.

 

Mansa Musa, one of the wealthiest people who ever lived - Jessica Smith. February 12, 2022. [video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O3YJMaL55TM

 

National Geographic. The Kingdom of Aksum. Retrieved February 12, 2022, from the National Geographic web site: https://www.nationalgeographic.org/article/kingdom-aksum/

 

PBS Learning Media. The Aksum Kingdom: Trade and Ancient Africa | Africa's Great Civilizations. Retrieved February 12, 2022, from the PBS web site: https://mass.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/65020a47-68b4-457d-a4e7-0bf306450605/the-aksum-kingdom-trade-and-ancient-africa/#.XfzaIi-ZNuU

Rotondo-McCord, J. (1998). Mali: Introduction. Retrieved February 7, 2012, from The Kingdoms on Medieval Sudan Xavier University of Louisiana Web site: http://webusers.xula.edu/jrotondo/Kingdoms/welcome.html

 

SAHO, (Produced November 8, 2011, last updated July 15, 2020). Songhai, African Empire, 15th-16th Century). Retrieved February 14, 2021, from South African History Online site: https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/songhai-african-empire-15-16th-century. (URL shortened for clarity, click the link, don't copy and paste)